Because in Bluefin everything happens at the value level, creating your own effects is equivalent to creating your own data types. We just use the techniques we know and love from Haskell! For example, if I want to make a "counter" effect that allows me to increment a counter then I can wrap a State handle in a newtype:

newtype Counter1 e = MkCounter1 (State Int e)

incCounter1 :: (e :> es) => Counter1 e -> Eff es ()
incCounter1 (MkCounter1 st) = modify st (+ 1)

runCounter1 ::
  (forall e. Counter1 e -> Eff (e :& es) r) ->
  Eff es Int
runCounter1 k =
  evalState 0 $ \st -> do
    _ <- k (MkCounter1 st)
    get st

Running the handler tells me the number of times I incremented the counter.

exampleCounter1 :: Int
exampleCounter1 = runPureEff $ runCounter1 $ \c ->
  incCounter1 c
  incCounter1 c
  incCounter1 c

>>> exampleCounter1
3

If we want to wrap multiple effects then we can use the normal approach we use to wrap multiple values into a single value: define a new data type with multiple fields. There's a caveat to this approach, but before we address the caveat let's see the approach in action. Here we define a new handle, Counter2, that contains a State and Exception handle within it. That allows us to increment the counter and throw an exception when we hit a limit.

data Counter2 e1 e2 = MkCounter2 (State Int e1) (Exception () e2)

incCounter2 :: (e1 :> es, e2 :> es) => Counter2 e1 e2 -> Eff es ()
incCounter2 (MkCounter2 st ex) = do
  count <- get st
  when (count >= 10) $
    throw ex ()
  put st (count + 1)

runCounter2 ::
  (forall e1 e2. Counter2 e1 e2 -> Eff (e2 :& e1 :& es) r) ->
  Eff es Int
runCounter2 k =
  evalState 0 $ \st -> do
    _ <- try $ \ex -> do
      k (MkCounter2 st ex)
    get st

We can see that attempting to increment the counter fovever bails out when we reach the limit.

exampleCounter2 :: Int
exampleCounter2 = runPureEff $ runCounter2 $ \c ->
  forever $
    incCounter2 c

>>> exampleCounter2
10

The flaw of this approach is that you expose one effect parameter for each handle in the data type. That's rather cumbersome! We can do better.

We can avoid exposing multiple effect parameters and just expose a single one. To make this work we have to define our handler in a slightly different way. Firstly we apply useImplIn to the effectful operation k and secondly we apply mapHandle to each of the handles out of which we create our compound handle. Everything else remains the same.

data Counter3 e = MkCounter3 (State Int e) (Exception () e)

incCounter3 :: (e :> es) => Counter3 e -> Eff es ()
incCounter3 (MkCounter3 st ex) = do
  count <- get st
  when (count >= 10) $
    throw ex ()
  put st (count + 1)

runCounter3 ::
  (forall e. Counter3 e -> Eff (e :& es) r) ->
  Eff es Int
runCounter3 k =
  evalState 0 $ \st -> do
    _ <- try $ \ex -> do
      useImplIn k (MkCounter3 (mapHandle st) (mapHandle ex))
    get st

The example works as before:

exampleCounter3 :: Int
exampleCounter3 = runPureEff $ runCounter3 $ \c ->
  forever $
    incCounter3 c

>>> exampleCounter3
10

So far our handlers have handled all the effects that are found within our compound effect. We don't have to do that though: we can leave an effect unhandled to be handled by a different handler at a higher level. This must always be the case for IOE, which can only be handled at the top level by runEff_. Let's see what it looks like to wrap IOE and provide an API which allows a subset of IO operations.

newtype Counter3B e = MkCounter3B (IOE e)

incCounter3B :: (e :> es) => Counter3B e -> Eff es ()
incCounter3B (MkCounter3B io) =
  effIO io (putStrLn "You tried to increment the counter")

runCounter3B ::
  (e1 :> es) =>
  IOE e1 ->
  (forall e. Counter3B e -> Eff (e :& es) r) ->
  Eff es r
runCounter3B io k = useImplIn k (MkCounter3B (mapHandle io))

exampleCounter3B :: IO ()
exampleCounter3B = runEff_ $ \io -> runCounter3B io $ \c -> do
  incCounter3B c
  incCounter3B c
  incCounter3B c

This isn't a terribly useful counter! It doesn't actually increment anything, it just prints a message when we try, but the example does demonstrate how to wrap IOE.

-- ghci> exampleCounter3B
-- You tried to increment the counter
-- You tried to increment the counter
-- You tried to increment the counter

We can wrap multiple effects, handle some of them and leave the others to be handled later. Let's extend Counter3 with a Stream effect. Whenever we ask to increment the counter, and it is currently an even number, then we yield a message about that. Additionally, there's a new operation getCounter4 which allows us to yield a message whilst returning the value of the counter.

data Counter4 e
  = MkCounter4 (State Int e) (Exception () e) (Stream String e)

incCounter4 :: (e :> es) => Counter4 e -> Eff es ()
incCounter4 (MkCounter4 st ex y) = do
  count <- get st

  when (even count) $
    yield y "Count was even"

  when (count >= 10) $
    throw ex ()

  put st (count + 1)

getCounter4 :: (e :> es) => Counter4 e -> String -> Eff es Int
getCounter4 (MkCounter4 st _ y) msg = do
  yield y msg
  get st

runCounter4 ::
  (e1 :> es) =>
  Stream String e1 ->
  (forall e. Counter4 e -> Eff (e :& es) r) ->
  Eff es Int
runCounter4 y k =
  evalState 0 $ \st -> do
    _ <- try $ \ex -> do
      useImplIn k (MkCounter4 (mapHandle st) (mapHandle ex) (mapHandle y))
    get st

exampleCounter4 :: ([String], Int)
exampleCounter4 = runPureEff $ yieldToList $ \y -> do
  runCounter4 y $ \c -> do
    incCounter4 c
    incCounter4 c
    n <- getCounter4 c "I'm getting the counter"
    when (n == 2) $
      yield y "n was 2, as expected"

>>> exampleCounter4
(["Count was even","I'm getting the counter","n was 2, as expected"],2)

So far we've looked at "concrete" compound effects, that is, new effects implemented in terms of specific other effects. We can also define dynamic effects, whose implementation is left abstract, to be defined in the handler. To do that we create a handle that is a record of functions. To run an effectful operation we call one of the functions from the record. We define the record in the handler. Here incCounter5Impl and getCounter5Impl are exactly the same as incCounter4 and getCounter4 were, they're just defined in the handler. In order to be used polymorphically, the actually effectful functions we call, incCounter5 and getCounter5 are derived from the record fields by applying makeOp.

data Counter5 e = MkCounter5
  { incCounter5Impl :: forall e'. Eff (e' :& e) (),
    getCounter5Impl :: forall e'. String -> Eff (e' :& e) Int
  }

instance Handle Counter5 where
  mapHandle c =
    MkCounter5
      { incCounter5Impl = useImplUnder (incCounter5Impl c),
        getCounter5Impl = \msg -> useImplUnder (getCounter5Impl c msg)
      }

incCounter5 :: (e :> es) => Counter5 e -> Eff es ()
incCounter5 e = makeOp (incCounter5Impl (mapHandle e))

getCounter5 :: (e :> es) => Counter5 e -> String -> Eff es Int
getCounter5 e msg = makeOp (getCounter5Impl (mapHandle e) msg)

runCounter5 ::
  (e1 :> es) =>
  Stream String e1 ->
  (forall e. Counter5 e -> Eff (e :& es) r) ->
  Eff es Int
runCounter5 y k =
  evalState 0 $ \st -> do
    _ <- try $ \ex -> do
      useImplIn
        k
        ( MkCounter5
            { incCounter5Impl = do
                count <- get st

                when (even count) $
                  yield y "Count was even"

                when (count >= 10) $
                  throw ex ()

                put st (count + 1),
              getCounter5Impl = \msg -> do
                yield y msg
                get st
            }
        )
    get st

The result is exactly the same as before

exampleCounter5 :: ([String], Int)
exampleCounter5 = runPureEff $ yieldToList $ \y -> do
  runCounter5 y $ \c -> do
    incCounter5 c
    incCounter5 c
    n <- getCounter5 c "I'm getting the counter"
    when (n == 2) $
      pyield y "n was 2, as expected"

>>> exampleCounter5
(["Count was even","I'm getting the counter","n was 2, as expected"],2)

We can also freely combine concrete and dynamic effects. In the following example, the incCounter6 effect is left dynamic, and defined in the handler, whilst getCounter6 is implemented in terms of concrete State and Stream effects.

data Counter6 e = MkCounter6
  { incCounter6Impl :: forall e'. Eff (e' :& e) (),
    counter6State :: State Int e,
    counter6Stream :: Stream String e
  }

instance Handle Counter6 where
  mapHandle c =
    MkCounter6
      { incCounter6Impl = useImplUnder (incCounter6Impl c),
        counter6State = mapHandle (counter6State c),
        counter6Stream = mapHandle (counter6Stream c)
      }

incCounter6 :: (e :> es) => Counter6 e -> Eff es ()
incCounter6 e = makeOp (incCounter6Impl (mapHandle e))

getCounter6 :: (e :> es) => Counter6 e -> String -> Eff es Int
getCounter6 (MkCounter6 _ st y) msg = do
  yield y msg
  get st

runCounter6 ::
  (e1 :> es) =>
  Stream String e1 ->
  (forall e. Counter6 e -> Eff (e :& es) r) ->
  Eff es Int
runCounter6 y k =
  evalState 0 $ \st -> do
    _ <- try $ \ex -> do
      useImplIn
        k
        ( MkCounter6
            { incCounter6Impl = do
                count <- get st

                when (even count) $
                  yield y "Count was even"

                when (count >= 10) $
                  throw ex ()

                put st (count + 1),
              counter6State = mapHandle st,
              counter6Stream = mapHandle y
            }
        )
    get st

Naturally, the result is the same.

exampleCounter6 :: ([String], Int)
exampleCounter6 = runPureEff $ yieldToList $ \y -> do
  runCounter6 y $ \c -> do
    incCounter6 c
    incCounter6 c
    n <- getCounter6 c "I'm getting the counter"
    when (n == 2) $
      yield y "n was 2, as expected"

>>> exampleCounter6
(["Count was even","I'm getting the counter","n was 2, as expected"],2)

We can implement dynamic effects that themselves take handles as arguments, by giving all the handle arguments the effect tag e'.

data Counter7 e = MkCounter7
  { incCounter7Impl :: forall e'. Exception () e' -> Eff (e' :& e) (),
    counter7State :: State Int e,
    counter7Stream :: Stream String e
  }

instance Handle Counter7 where
  mapHandle c =
    MkCounter7
      { incCounter7Impl = \ex -> useImplUnder (incCounter7Impl c ex),
        counter7State = mapHandle (counter7State c),
        counter7Stream = mapHandle (counter7Stream c)
      }

incCounter7 ::
  (e :> es, e1 :> es) => Counter7 e -> Exception () e1 -> Eff es ()
incCounter7 e ex = makeOp (incCounter7Impl (mapHandle e) (mapHandle ex))

getCounter7 :: (e :> es) => Counter7 e -> String -> Eff es Int
getCounter7 (MkCounter7 _ st y) msg = do
  yield y msg
  get st

runCounter7 ::
  (e1 :> es) =>
  Stream String e1 ->
  (forall e. Counter7 e -> Eff (e :& es) r) ->
  Eff es Int
runCounter7 y k =
  evalState 0 $ \st -> do
    _ <-
      useImplIn
        k
        ( MkCounter7
            { incCounter7Impl = \ex -> do
                count <- get st

                when (even count) $
                  yield y "Count was even"

                when (count >= 10) $
                  throw ex ()

                put st (count + 1),
              counter7State = mapHandle st,
              counter7Stream = mapHandle y
            }
        )
    get st

The result is the same as before ...

exampleCounter7A :: ([String], Int)
'exampleCounter7A = runPureEff $ yieldToList $ \y -> do
  handle (\() -> pure (-42)) $ \ex ->
    runCounter7 y $ \c -> do
      incCounter7 c ex
      incCounter7 c ex
      n <- getCounter7 c "I'm getting the counter"
      when (n == 2) $
        yield y "n was 2, as expected"

-- > exampleCounter7A
-- (["Count was even","I'm getting the counter","n was 2, as expected"],2)

... unless we run incCounter too many times, in which case it throws an exception.

exampleCounter7B :: ([String], Int)
exampleCounter7B = runPureEff $ yieldToList $ \y -> do
  handle (\() -> pure (-42)) $ \ex ->
    runCounter7 y $ \c -> do
      forever (incCounter7 c ex)

-- > exampleCounter7B
-- (["Count was even","Count was even","Count was even","Count was even","Count was even","Count was even"],-42)

We can also implement dynamic effects that themselves take effectful operations as arguments, by giving the effectful operation the effect tag e'. Here's an example of a dynamic reader effect, and one handler for the effect, which runs it in terms of the existing Reader effect.

data DynamicReader r e = DynamicReader
  { askLRImpl :: forall e'. Eff (e' :& e) r,
    localLRImpl :: forall e' a. (r -> r) -> Eff e' a -> Eff (e' :& e) a
  }

instance Handle (DynamicReader r) where
  mapHandle h =
    DynamicReader
      { askLRImpl = useImplUnder (askLRImpl h),
        localLRImpl = \f k -> useImplUnder (localLRImpl h f k)
      }

askLR ::
  (e :> es) =>
  DynamicReader r e ->
  Eff es r
askLR c = makeOp (askLRImpl (mapHandle c))

localLR ::
  (e :> es) =>
  DynamicReader r e ->
  (r -> r) ->
  Eff es a ->
  Eff es a
localLR c f m = makeOp (localLRImpl (mapHandle c) f m)

runDynamicReader ::
  r ->
  (forall e. DynamicReader r e -> Eff (e :& es) a) ->
  Eff es a
runDynamicReader r k =
  runReader r $ \h -> do
    useImplIn
      k
      DynamicReader
        { askLRImpl = ask h,
          localLRImpl = \f k' -> makeOp (local h f (useImpl k'))
        }

The effectful library has an example of a dynamic effect for basic file system access. This is what it looks like in Bluefin. We start by defining a record of effectful operations.

data FileSystem es = MkFileSystem
  { readFileImpl :: forall e. FilePath -> Eff (e :& es) String,
    writeFileImpl :: forall e. FilePath -> String -> Eff (e :& es) ()
  }

instance Handle FileSystem where
  mapHandle fs = MkFileSystem {
    readFileImpl = \fp -> useImplUnder (readFileImpl fs fp),
    writeFileImpl = \fp s -> useImplUnder (writeFileImpl fs fp s)
    }

readFile :: (e :> es) => FileSystem e -> FilePath -> Eff es String
readFile fs filepath = makeOp (readFileImpl (mapHandle fs) filepath)

writeFile :: (e :> es) => FileSystem e -> FilePath -> String -> Eff es ()
writeFile fs filepath contents =
  makeOp (writeFileImpl (mapHandle fs) filepath contents)

We can make a pure handler that simulates reading and writing to a file system by storing file contents in an association list.

runFileSystemPure ::
  (e1 :> es) =>
  Exception String e1 ->
  [(FilePath, String)] ->
  (forall e2. FileSystem e2 -> Eff (e2 :& es) r) ->
  Eff es r
runFileSystemPure ex fs0 k =
  evalState fs0 $ \fs ->
    useImplIn
      k
      MkFileSystem
        { readFileImpl = \filepath -> do
            fs' <- get fs
            case lookup filepath fs' of
              Nothing ->
                throw ex ("File not found: " <> filepath)
              Just s -> pure s,
          writeFileImpl = \filepath contents ->
            modify fs ((filepath, contents) :)
        }

Or we can make a handler that actually performs IO operations against a real file system.

runFileSystemIO ::
  forall e1 e2 es r.
  (e1 :> es, e2 :> es) =>
  Exception String e1 ->
  IOE e2 ->
  (forall e. FileSystem e -> Eff (e :& es) r) ->
  Eff es r
runFileSystemIO ex io k =
  useImplIn
    k
    MkFileSystem
      { readFileImpl =
          adapt . Prelude.readFile,
        writeFileImpl =
          \filepath -> adapt . Prelude.writeFile filepath
      }
  where
    adapt :: (e1 :> ess, e2 :> ess) => IO a -> Eff ess a
    adapt m =
      effIO io (Control.Exception.try @IOException m) >>= \case
        Left e -> throw ex (show e)
        Right r -> pure r

We can use the FileSystem effect to define an action which does some file system operations.

action :: (e :> es) => FileSystem e -> Eff es String
action fs = do
  file <- readFile fs "/dev/null"
  when (length file == 0) $ do
    writeFile fs "/tmp/bluefin" "Hello!"
  readFile fs "/tmp/doesn't exist"

and we can run it purely, against a simulated file system

exampleRunFileSystemPure :: Either String String
exampleRunFileSystemPure = runPureEff $ try $ \ex ->
  runFileSystemPure ex [("/dev/null", "")] action

>>> exampleRunFileSystemPure
Left "File not found: /tmp/doesn't exist"

or against the real file system.

exampleRunFileSystemIO :: IO (Either String String)
exampleRunFileSystemIO = runEff_ $ \io -> try $ \ex ->
  runFileSystemIO ex io action

>>> exampleRunFileSystemIO
Left "/tmp/doesn't exist: openFile: does not exist (No such file or directory)"
$ cat /tmp/bluefin
Hello!

Do not use. Will be removed in a future version.